This topic introduces the role of solid waste treatment in addressing chemical pollution and supporting more sustainable resource management. From household rubbish and hazardous chemicals to electronic waste and industrial by-products, solid waste management plays a critical role in preventing chemical pollution and supporting the transition to a more sustainable and circular economy. The amount of waste generated worldwide continues to rise, with The World Health Organization estimating that more than 2 billion tonnes of municipal solid waste are produced globally each year, with this figure projected to approach 4 billion tonnes annually by 2050. Understanding how waste is generated, managed and treated is therefore essential for reducing pollution, protecting human health, and supporting environmental sustainability.
Solid waste is broadly defined as any substance or object that is discarded, intended to be discarded, or required to be discarded. It includes municipal solid waste from households and businesses, hazardous waste containing substances that may harm people or the environment, and inert waste that remains chemically and biologically stable over long periods. The way these waste streams are managed influences the movement of pollutants through ecosystems.
A range of treatment and management options are available for solid waste. These include recycling and reuse, composting, anaerobic digestion, thermal treatment processes such as incineration, pyrolysis and gasification, and disposal in landfills. The waste hierarchy provides a framework for prioritising these approaches, promoting prevention, reuse and recycling before alternative treatment and disposal options. Effective waste management contributes directly to the achievement of Sustainable Development Goal 12 on responsible consumption and production, including the environmentally sound management of chemicals and waste.
Many products entering waste streams contain chemicals that can be released into the environment during collection, treatment or disposal. These include heavy metals, dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), bisphenol A (BPA), pharmaceuticals, hydrocarbons and flame retardants. Chemicals may enter soil, water and air through landfill leachate, landfill gas emissions and littering. Understanding these pathways is essential for identifying pollution risks and developing safer waste management systems. Life cycle assessment approaches can help evaluate environmental impacts throughout a product's journey from production to disposal.
The topic also explores the regulatory frameworks that govern waste management and the practical challenges associated with waste treatment. Historic landfill sites continue to present environmental risks through long-term generation of methane and leachate, while climate change may increase pressures on waste infrastructure through flooding, erosion and extreme weather. At the same time, evolving regulations seek to improve waste handling, increase recycling rates and strengthen environmental protection.
Finally, the module examines how circular economy approaches can transform waste from an environmental burden into a valuable resource. Opportunities exist to recover materials, capture energy from landfill gas, generate products such as biochar and biofuels, and create economic incentives for recycling and reuse. By exploring the links between waste management, chemical pollution, regulation and resource recovery, this module provides an overview of the challenges and opportunities involved in developing more sustainable waste systems for the future.
Natasha Brown at the JNCC in the UK gives an overview of the removal of chemicals in solid waste treatment
Key Reading
Silpa Kaza, Lisa Yao, Perinaz Bhada-Tata & Frank Van Woerden (2018). What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to 2050. World Bank, Washington DC
The Global Goals (n.d.) Goal 12: Responsible consumption and production. Available at: https://globalgoals.org/goals/12-responsible-consumption-and-production/
HM Government (2024). Extended Producer Responsibility for Packaging
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) (2025) UK statistics on waste. GOV.UK. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/uk-waste-data/uk-statistics-on-waste
United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2023) Best Practices for Solid Waste Management: A Guide for Decision-Makers in Developing Countries. Solid Waste Management and Climate Change. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Available at: https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2023-07/SWM_Climate-Final.pdf
Rahman, I.U., Mohammed, H.J. & Bamasag, A. An exploration of recent waste-to-energy advancements for optimal solid waste management. Discov Chem Eng 5, 7 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43938-025-00079-8
Brand, James & Spencer, Kate & O'Shea, Francis & Lindsay, John. (2017). Potential pollution risks of historic landfills on low‐lying coasts and estuaries. WIREs Water. 5. e1264. 10.1002/wat2.1264.